An Introduction to Ancient Mesopotamian Religion By: Tammi J. Schneider

    An Introduction to Ancient Mesopotamian Religion written by Tammi J. Schneider [1] functions as a crash course on everything that has been discovered thus far of ancient Mesopotamian religions. The author herself ensures various times throughout the book that she has not written an in-depth study on the subject, and she does a fantastic job of introducing foreign customs that would otherwise be very difficult to comprehend. Schneider begins by detailing the methods and steps that have been taken as far as archaeological discoveries and the history that took place to influence the developing religions. She then spends the rest of the book touching on the places, people, and objects that are involved with these ancient beliefs and how they interact with the practitioners of the religions. Her main goal is to observe how the ancient Mesopotamians lived in light of what they believed about their deities [2] and she believes that provides a good foundation for better understanding their actual beliefs. 

Background

Schneider explains that “Mesopotamians seldom recorded what they thought” which in turn has affected how she must approach her study. Instead of determining exactly what they believed in relativity to their gods she seeks to “investigate what they did based on the info they left behind” and she has recognized that it is an incomplete picture [3]. She further prefaces her study by explaining that the motivations of historians and excavators influences what has been discovered over the years [4] and that unfortunately political issues have governed where sites have been dug up[5]. 

This look into ancient Mesopotamia includes helpful historical and cultural facts regarding the land, such as, the development of irrigation systems that then allowed the Sumerians (occupying southern Mesopotamia) to remain in the same settlement year-round, as opposed to what was the norm at the time, (living as migrants)[6],. This is significant because with the establishment of cities, each city was “considered to have developed for the gods”[7] with every city having their own “patron deity”. Ancient Mesopotamian myths were ever changing, being modified through the generations[9] to fit the current political needs of a people or city, with the loyalty to one’s city taking precedent.[10] Another core understanding to ancient Mesopotamian religion is that while there are a seemingly endless number of deities, they are all associated with each other[11] and the cosmogony (belief regarding how the universe was created) was generally that “humans were created to serve the deities.”[12]

Current Mesopotamian Records

As with modern religions there were texts and stories that were read at certain festivals and rituals such as the Enuma Elish [13] which discusses the “origins of the earth, the gods, and the role of humans in the world.” Schneider highlights five major gods that were well known throughout not only mythological text, but also “legal, literary, historical, and ritual” texts.[16] Among the five major deities there is An, who was originally “considered the prime deity involved in creation” until the Enuma Elish established that role for Marduk.[17] Enlil, the “king of the gods”[18], Inanna or Ishtar, depending on Sumerian or Akkadian mythology: “the goddess of love and sexual behavior.. fond of battle, and the planet Venus, the morning and evening star.”[19] There was also Marduk, “the patron deity of Babylon,” [20] who’s supremacy correlated with the rise of Babylon as a political power, and finally, Assur, the deity of the Assyrians.[21] In addition to the main gods there were personal gods that functioned to intercede between the main gods and the average family.[22]    

Invaluable to the deities were the use of temples. “The only purpose for the state… was to serve the gods”, with the temple functioning as the residence of each deity.[23] The temples were treated like homes[24] for the gods and therefore were the workplace for countless positions to be held[25] ranging from priests and officials to butlers, accountants, guards, and everything in between. The staff in the temple were tasked with providing for the deities needs and thus no matter how mundane their task seemed were considered “religious personnel”[26] because their “primary job was to care for the deities”. Within the temples were statues of the deity who belongs to the city, and they were subjected to an important “mis pi”[27] ritual, which was a two-step process aiming to bring the deity from the spiritual world to the physical world. The presence of an actual statue that was believed to be the deity may be the reason why when a temple was destroyed in war and the deity taken or destroyed, they were believed to have abandoned the city.[28]

Among the religious personnel were those with specialized skills and duties. For example, diviners, tasked with discovering what a god wants[29], most popularly through extispicy, which requires “examining the liver of an animal to determine the future”.[30] Use of prophecy has also been discovered which generally “assure the king of success or warn of possible danger”[31]and was not a favorable method of communication. There were also women known as “Naditu” who were dedicated to serving one deity for their lives, privileged to a lifelong dowry, and expected not to marry or have children.[32]

The texts that Schneider reviewed regarding the deities, highlight the depth to which religion was tied to general worldview.[33] Detailed are disputations[34] which were cleverly written as debates between two animate or inanimate beings seeking to establish which is more useful. The debates communicate that everything in the world was created by the gods for a particular purpose.[35]Also were lists covering a wide range of topics[36] such as nouns for nature and objects, professions, and gods with those on the top of the lists being viewed as more important.[37] There were ritual texts and prayers “for almost any occasion”,[38] hymns of praise,[39] and wisdom literature, dealing with “ethics, practical advice on living, and intellectual problems”.[40] The focus of the questions asked in the wisdom literature are an “effort to understand humans’ role in the universe, the role of personal piety, and why human existence demands suffering.”[41]

The ancient Mesopotamians participated in rituals regarding their gods which we can know were very important to them due to the extensive writings left behind detailing instructions on how to carry them out. Daily, their deities had to be fed[42] and were presented with elaborate presentations and then covered with curtains to avoid allowing a human to witness the deity eating. Schneider notes that we do not know whether or not they considered it a problem that the deity didn’t actually consume the food.[43] As in other religions, the yearly festivals were connected with the agricultural life of the land.[44] As with myths and deity roles, the meaning for the festivals varied over time and depending on the region due to political reasons (106). Most signification, were the Akitu festivals, celebrated at the at the six-month equinox. A highlight among rituals for the festival is when the king would swear to Marduk that he had not sinned and then the priest would strike the king in the face. The custom was that if tears flowed, he is accepted by Marduk. If tears didn’t flow then he would be outed as king.[45] In addition to the Msi-pi transformation ritual, there was also the sacred marriage ritual that has some confusion surrounding it as scholars are not sure if it was a physical manifestation or symbolic. Most of the texts regarding the ritual are “explicitly sexual and appear to describe a physical union between the king and the goddess Inanna” but the texts don’t address why.[46]

The ancient Mesopotamians also practiced magic throughout their daily lives to navigate challenges. For example, if one lost favor with a god, to protect against bites and to assist in childbirth.[47] The magic consisted of incantations to be spoken and at other times, symbolic actions to be taken. One of the reasons magic was used was due to the perceived flightiness of the ancient Mesopotamian gods. Because they “changed their minds frequently and were moody” an individual could sin unknowingly and be punished,[48] only to be remedied by magic.

Throughout Mesopotamia “the notion that the kings held a special relationship with the divine did not change.” This is one of the unique areas detailed by Schneider that is standard throughout time and place, however the extent to which they are connected are different.[49] Some texts and images portray the king as being “higher” than regular humans,[50] some kings even “declared themselves to be actual divinities.”[51] Kings were viewed as having been chosen, appointed and perfected by the gods in any case.

Conclusion

Tammi J. Schneider put together an extremely helpful look at ancient Mesopotamian religions that would benefit any student of religion to read. She included broad facts regarding each area of study that she ventured into, while also being thorough to provide memorable details throughout each chapter. Her introduction leaves the reader with a solid foundation to continue studying from. 

[1] Schneider, Tammi J. An Introduction to Ancient Mesopotamian Religion. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2011. [2] Schneider, Introduction, 126. [3] Schneider, Introduction, 8. [4] Schneider, Introduction, 10. [5] Schneider, Introduction, 12. [6] Schneider, Introduction, 19. [7] Schneider, Introduction, 21. [8] Schneider, Introduction, 34. [9] Schneider, Introduction, 35. [10] Schneider, Introduction, 38. [11] Schneider, Introduction, 39. [12] Schneider, Introduction, 41 [13] Schneider, Introduction, 41. [14] Schneider, Introduction, 42. [15] Schneider, Introduction, 43. [16] Schneider, Introduction, 51. [17] Schneider, Introduction, 57. [18] Schneider, Introduction, 58. [19] Schneider, Introduction, 59. [20] Schneider, Introduction, 62. [21] Schneider, Introduction, 62. [22] Schneider, Introduction, 63.[23] Schneider, Introduction, 66. [24] Schneider, Introduction, 68. [25] Schneider, Introduction, 81. [26] Schneider, Introduction, 82. [27] Schneider, Introduction, 76. [28] Schneider, Introduction, 77. [29] Schneider, Introduction, 83. [30] Schneider, Introduction, 84. [31] Schneider, Introduction, 87. [32] Schneider, Introduction, 89. [33] Schneider, Introduction, 91. [34] Schneider, Introduction, 92 [35] Schneider, Introduction, 93. [36] Schneider, Introduction, 94. [37] Schneider, Introduction, 95 [38] Schneider, Introduction, 96. [39] Schneider, Introduction, 97. [40] Schneider, Introduction, 98. [41] Schneider, Introduction, 98. [42] Schneider, Introduction, 104. [43] Schneider, Introduction, 104. [44] Schneider, Introduction, 105. [45] Schneider, Introduction, 107. [46] Schneider, Introduction, 109. [47] Schneider, Introduction, 115. [48] Schneider, Introduction, 114. [49] Schneider, Introduction, 118. [50] Schneider, Introduction, 119. [51] Schneider, Introduction, 119. [52] Schneider, Introduction, 82.